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Data on employment, sales, and industry structure for the software industry are rare, and public statistical agencies do not provide reliable, internationally comparable data The International Computer Software Industry: A Comparative Study of Industry Evolution and Structure offers the first comprehensive, cross-national analysis of the origins, structure, and competitive strengths of the U. In addition to chapters dealing with each of these industries, the volume examines in detail the role of U.
This edited volume contains research conducted by a group of international experts in the software industry. It will be essential reading for managers and analysts in the software industry, along with scholars and students of technology and of the computer software industry Includes bibliographical references and index 1. Mowery -- 2. The U. Edward Steinmueller -- 3. IBM and other mainframe computer manufacturers also produced large custom software applications for customers and became important suppliers in the software-contracting industry.
Much of the software-related knowhow developed from defense contracts « spilled over » to commercial applications, such as early airline reservation systems Campbell-Kelly, Like hardware, the emergent U. Through the s and s, almost half of the federal funds for mathematics and computer science research which included funding from major civilian research agencies, such as the National Science Foundation and the National Institute of Health went to universities and colleges.
Federal procurement programs influenced the evolution of specific programming languages as well. The DoD required that computers purchased by the military support COBOL, and that any business-related applications for defense programs be written in the language. Since DoD accounted for such a large share of the « market » for custom software, its procurement requirements facilitated the development and diffusion of COBOL Flamm , p.
Much of the rapid growth in custom software firms during the period reflected expansion in federal demand, which in turn was dominated by DoD demand. There exists no reliable time series of DoD expenditures on software procurement that employs a consistent definition of software.
Nevertheless, the available data suggest that in constant-dollar terms, DoD expenditures on software increased more than thirtyfold during the period Langlois and Mowery, Throughout this period, DoD software demand was dominated by custom software, and DoD and federal government. Procurement spending promoted learning, knowledge development, and standards in the early stages of the industry.
Just as occurred in computer hardware and semiconductors, however, commercial demand grew to outstrip defense-related markets. By the early s, defense demand accounted for a declining share of the U.
The tangled history of the Defense Department's « generic » software language, Ada, unveiled in , illustrates the declining influence of federal procurement on the rapidly growing software industry. Billed as a solution to the problems of system maintenance and software development resulting from the bewildering variety of software languages in use within defense systems, Ada was designed as a single « standard » software language for all defense applications.
Ada proponents argued that the creation of a software standard for military applications would attract commercial developers, many of whom no longer pursued opportunities in the defense market, to produce software that could be used in both civilian and military applications. But the difficulties associated with « inserting » Ada into the enormous « installed base » of defense-related software meant that the language failed to attract the attention of commercial developers.
The Internet. The Internet was invented and commercialized primarily in the United States, although scientists and engineering in other industrial economies especially France and the United Kingdom made important contributions to computer networking technologies during the s, and the key technologies underpinning the « World Wide Web » were invented at CERN, the European nuclear physics research facility.
Nonetheless, U. The Department of Defense played a critical role in funding the development and diffusion of early versions of the technology. The work of Baran, Kleinrock and others led the U. The new data-networking protocol allowed physically distinct networks to interconnect with one another as « peers » and exchange packets through special hardware, called a gateway. Had a proprietary protocol become dominant, the evolution of computer networking and eventually, the Internet, might have been very different See Mowery and Simcoe, , for further discussion.
The resulting widespread diffusion of the Internet's core technological innovations lowered barriers to the entry by networking firms in hardware, software and services. French and British computer scientists also contributed important technical advances to packet- switching and computer-networking technologies and protocols during this period, and publicly supported prototype computer networks were established in both France and the UK by the early s.
Its size and inclusion of a diverse array of institutions as members both appear to distinguish the ARPANET from its British and French counterparts, and accelerated the development of supporting technologies and applications. The large scale of the U. As had been true of semiconductors, the award of major development and procurement contracts to small firms such as BBN helped foster entry by new firms into the emerging Internet industry, supporting intense competition and rapid innovation. Although it was not the first functional Internet « browser », Mosaic, a free program written by a group of graduate students at the University of Illinois' National Center for Supercomputing Applications, was widely adopted and accelerated the growth of the Web 8.
During , the. The postwar U. The structure of these public programs also enhanced the innovative dynamism and competitive strength of the IT sector. The sheer scale of U. Other important differences, such as the willingness of at least some U. Nevertheless, many of these « structural components » were themselves made feasible by the sheer scale of U.
The economic and institutional effects of U. In addition, of course, the period of hot and cold hostilities in which the United States was engaged after extended over a far longer period than was true of these earlier conflicts. The global « war on terror » declared by the current U. Administration portends a renewed technological and economic mobilization that may last for decades.
Any assessment of the long-term effects of a dramatic shift in federal spending priorities that is itself less than 4 years old must be very provisional. Such a shift is likely to reduce the « pure knowledge spillovers » described above, and could slow growth in or actually reduce defense-related investments in academic research in engineering and the physical sciences.
FY Budget » Washington, D. Science, BEST M. Production-Led Industrial Policies », in J. Michie and J. Smith, eds. CERF V. Intersociety Working Group, ed. Washington, D. Development, FY Washington, D. FORAY, « Quandaries in the economics of dual technologies and spillovers from military to civilian research and development », Research Policy 24, , Press, Journal of Economics 19, , Princeton, NJ:.
Princeton University Press, Electronics Industry », unpublished D. Oxford University Press, American Economic Review 1A, , Patenting and Licensing by U. Universities: An Assessment of the Effects of the Bayh-. Dole Act of », Research Policy 30, , University Press, Research », National Academy Press, Technology Development », in W. Research for this paper was supported by the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation and the Kauffman Foundation.
The waves of entry by new firms into semiconductor production also were criticized, for producing financially weak firms that failed to focus on developing strong manufacturing capabilities See Florida and Kenney, Many of the characteristics of the U.
European governments also concentrated their limited support on defense-oriented engineering and electronics firms. The American practice was to support military technology projects undertaken by industrial and business equipment firms that were mainly interested in commercial markets. These firms viewed their military business as a development vehicle for technology that eventually would be adapted and sold in the open marketplace ».
Flamm, , p. The minutes indicate a very great desire at this time on the part of the leaders there to make their work widely available. A single circuit may carry packets from multiple connections, and the for a single communication may take different routes from source to destination. By the early s, networking technologies and powerful desktop computers had reduced the need of academic researchers for access to supercomputers.
As a result, NCSA researchers focused on developing new technologies to support expanded use of computer networking Abbate , p. Fabrizio David C. Plan Introduction [link] Dod funding and it innovation [link] Semiconductors [link] Computer hardware [link] Computer software [link] The Internet [link] Conclusion [link] References [link].
Liste des illustrations Figure 1. Total and Military Share of U. S Integrated Circuit Sales [link] Figure 4.
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